Keywords
Wicked problems, societal issues, transitions, learning ecosystems, trans-disciplinary and interdisciplinary working, quintuple helix, innovativeness, responsiveness, knowledge circulation, knowledge adoption, adaptive capacity
Abstract
In this white paper, I offer a framework that approaches recurring social issues within the education-labour market relationship in a sustainable and more inclusive way in a society that is increasingly complex and untameable in nature. From a broad social and pedagogical/didactic perspective, the task of vocational education (qualification, socialisation, personal and community development), it is more than relevant that education and stakeholders working with education become aware of the interdependencies and interests in a broader social perspective. They should recalibrate their perceptions and arrive at shared understandings based on shared ambitions and interests. Through this white paper, I contribute to the current societal discourse on the collaboration of education, entrepreneurs and government in networks and networked learning in a more holistic ecosystem. Furthermore, I offer a helping hand to actors to establish a level playing field through a network of learning environments that can be interconnected into learning ecosystems, in order to initiate and sustain relevant transitions. This in order to be able to increase the knowledge circulation and adoption, learning capacity and responsiveness of those involved in dealing with complex and untameable societal issues.
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Developments in today’s world are taking us from a postmodern to a metamodern era. An era between hope & melancholy, naivety & knowing, empathy & apathy, unity & plurality, totality & fragmentation, purity & ambiguity (Vermeulen & Akker, 2010). We are being challenged to look at our world, our ecological system, in a different way. After passing through the first, second and third industrial revolutions, we have entered the era of renewable and green energy, interconnectivity and innovative technologies that are of increasing societal and economic value in our networked society (Castells, 1996; Castells, 2011; Rifkin, 2011; Rifkin, 2012; Schwab, 2017; World Economic Forum & Schwab, 2016). Globalisation and localisation have a major impact on the role and position of local governments, quangos, NGOs and citizens in relation to the State and the world around us(Barber, 2013; Cox, 1997; Holton, 2011; Steger, 2013). Decentralisation of government tasks and an assumed greater role for citizens is becoming the order of the day.
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Entrepreneurs are increasingly held responsible by society for societal problems such as air pollution, climate change, working conditions, an ageing population and shortages within labour. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is seen as an essential part of entrepreneurship and demands to be considered not only from the economic perspective of financial business cases, but from a broader societal perspective. CSR is no longer seen as an occasional charity project or frame, but an all-inclusive view of a company’s core business (Ministry of General Affairs, 2013; VNO-NCW, 2015). Economic growth as an end in itself is therefore increasingly criticised within the economic community (Dearing, et al., 2014; Raworth, 2012, Raworth, 2017).
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Citizens are showing themselves to be more individualised, reflexive and time and place independent connected through the availability of information and knowledge in every layer of our society. New forms of entrepreneurship, knowledge development and social innovation are visible. At the same time, a shift is visible among citizens from haves and have-nots to cans and cannots(van den Broek et al., 2016). The Netherlands has a long history of participation, however, comparisons with other countries and the early modern era show that significantly higher levels of (self-reliant and policy influencing) participation are possible than currently exist in our country(van Houwelingen, Boele, & Dekker, 2014). The usefulness and need for citizens to be able to empower themselves more than they do today is evident.
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Global challenges and related complex and untameable societal issues transcend traditional boundaries and require highly cooperative regions and actors. There are global calls to link global sustainability goals to local actions, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, 2015). Agreements are made and multimedia is reported convincingly through robust language, images, symbols, figures, narrative, synodic, ambiguities, et cetera to influence and move citizens, professionals and institutions (Stone, 2012).
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Knowledge and educational institutions from primary to university level are strongly criticised for the Taylorist way they have shaped their educational function in recent decades and lagging behind developments in society. Despite its multiple and fundamental role, the sector is struggling with tight allocation models, teacher shortages and a mismatch in the connection between the educational and labour market and the supply of competences needed in a rapidly changing future. For instance, as a result of technologisation, an ageing population and lagging knowledge and skills among professionals, there is great pressure on Engineering, ICT and Care programmes. Exponential changes and disruptive products and services affect the expectations of knowledge and education institutions, as there is a trade-off between social and technologically deterministic approaches in this regard. Incentives have ensured that 37 Centres of expertise (COE) and 118 Centres for Innovative Expertise (CIV) now exist in the Netherlands since the introduction of the top sector policy in 2011 (Katapult, 2017a; Katapult, 2017b; PBT & Katapult, 2018). They mainly address sector-specific innovations. Within some partnerships, frontrunners seek to address broader social issues and cross-sectoral challenges to teach pupils/students up-to-date skills. They try to connect social and technological issues.
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Nation states, following the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), concluded the Paris Agreement. Meanwhile, there is a proposal for outlines of the Climate Accord in the Netherlands, but the various action perspectives for chain and network partners do not yet seem to be sufficiently known. Challenges hidden behind climate change, among others, do not manifest themselves as singular, linear or merely complex, but as insufficiently definable and untameable; in other words, wicked (J. Rotmans et al., 2000; Jan Rotmans, Kemp, & van Asselt, 2001).
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Wicked problems have the particular characteristic when addressed from an apparently makeable perspective that they manifest themselves differently again from another perspective. The indomitability of the problem is reflected by the diversity of the actors involved in the problem(Coyne, 2005; Raab & Oerlemans, Apr 14, 2016; Rittel & Webber, 1973) caused by the different interests, dependencies and perceptions of these actors towards the problem(Kwakkel, Walker, & Marjolijn, 2016). Formulating the appropriate problem definition also proves to be wicked and the idea of solutions to wicked problems is an illusion, as solutions to continuous change do not exist, only continuous adaptation(Bardi, 2015).
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Governance and management of wicked problems should be approached from an iterative, cyclical and inclusive perspective of transition design, new public governance and transition management via programme lines and transition paths (Rotmans, 2006; Koppenjan, 2012). Traditional more rational policy cycles that are run through input-throughput-output are replaced by cycles with a focus on outcomes and impact for the benefit of the ecological system, citizens or end users. Within this, policy processes, decision-making, evaluations and steering are conceived as an argumentative process in which the problem definition, a shared understanding of the functioning of the current system and how it leads to the issue, as well as the set of promising ‘solutions’ are gradually established through debate among the decision-makers and stakeholders involved (Dewulf, Craps, Bouwen, Taillieu, & Pahl-Wostl, 2005). New public management and scientific management have proven their worth and need not be discarded as such. However, reflection is in order. Within the elaboration of programme lines and transition paths, they deserve space for the time being during transformation and improvement processes. The resulting instruments can be used with care and consideration provided they add value to the transition issues and change processes.
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Transitions have the characteristic of having a deep impact on existing cultures, employees, technologies and structures, as well as the width of impact on individuals, teams, departments, organisations, industries and end-users (de Witte, Jonker, & Haakman, 2014). From a sociotechnological perspective, transitions occur over periods of several decades(Hess, 2014). Therefore, arguing that transitions should proceed only through the royal route of politics is too simplistic. A multi-actor, multi-level, multi-domain and multi-phase approach focusing on innovation and sustainability, from new governance paradigms through political and transition arenas is necessary. Thereby, governments, entrepreneurs, educational and knowledge institutions, intermediaries, and civil society organisations (incl. interest groups) should find themselves as joint actors in the transition arenas (Rotmans, 2006).It should be emphasised that transitions require a broader perspective of change, and that the usually common public-private cooperation model of education, government and entrepreneurs, the triple helix, is not sufficient for transitions. Figure 2 shows the different flows of information linked to type of innovation model, as demonstrated by Carayannis and Campbell.
Focus on both long-term through transition arenas related to system innovation and focus on short-term through political arenas should relate converging and diverging (Rotmans, 2006). A remarkable double paradox therefore lies hidden in:’urgent solutions for wicked problems’. Speed of innovation and strengthening of innovation power depend both on the degree of targeted knowledge circulation and knowledge adoption and the adaptive and learning capacity of actors involved(WRR, 2013). Moreover, the degree of impact of innovations depends on the degree of diversity of participating actors in the transition arenas. Here, too, lies a paradox:’diversity takes time’. Such paradoxes call for space for accelerating behavioural change; space for transitions of systems and innovations in general. This means that we as a society as a whole have the ‘non-committal’ task of growing towards a learning culture, where there is room for experimentation and making mistakes, where everyone in society can and may continuously learn, develop and evolve. Under the motto “Transitions by Learning, Learning by Doing” (Niedeveld, 2018), necessary learning and development processes can be given form and substance, which can lead to impactful, smart, inclusive and sustainable ‘solutions’, or rather continuous changes. As a society, in addition to a broader vision, we will have to actually just get to work and facilitate “daring to take risks”. Our society is rich of innovators and early adopters who, however, fail to connect with the great majority (Clarysse, Wright, Bruneel, & Mahajan, 2014; Moore, 1991). Connecting these frontrunners with the early majority and late majority (crossing the chasm) will need to be able to be supported by providing continuous just-in-time expert support to these processes. In line with a glocalising society, this demands an approach at different localities and aggregation levels; a network of environments where real and actual wicked problems are brought in and addressed. Such a system of networked learning environments can be seen as a learning ecosystem for societal issues.
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Learning ecosystems can address the wicked problems in our world. Besides living in a physical world, the virtual world is taking on a greater role. In our society, ‘spaces of flows’ are developing alongside ‘spaces of places’ (Castells, 1996; Castells, 2011). Based on the principle of equality, it is important that citizens, entrepreneurs, governments, education, et cetera have access to the services of physical and virtual nodes in the learning ecosystems to be realised. Both worlds should be accessible to everyone in our society, regardless of perspective or role. “Do you want to learn?”, “Do you want to learn to learn?”, “Does the urgency to learn exist?”: the movement from haves and have-nots to cans and cannots can be broken, as learning can take place in these practical learning environments. Following on from the helixes shown, the concept of the quintuple helix innovation model as a design for learning environments in which sustainable developments can take place is shown below.
Sustainable development and creation of impact within the quintuple helix innovation model aligns with the need of untameable societal issues (Carayannis, Grigoroudis, Campbell, Meissner, & Stamati, 2017) by enhancing innovation power through knowledge circulation, knowledge adoption, transfer of applicable knowledge and skills and opportunities for increasing adaptive capacity by actors.
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The systematisation of innovation power, or rather making participation in and use of learning environments more accessible and commonplace in a targeted way, increases the power of innovation and allows for a culture of continuous learning and development. This requires multiple organisations, mastering multiple systems side by side, working in networks and collaborating. The current design of knowledge and education infrastructure does not answer the demand of learning ecosystems for wicked problems. For instance, the Rathenau Institute argues that the Dutch Innovation System is not yet ready for societal challenges(Rathenau, 2018). They further note that: “a multi-year effort of multiple parties, a coordinated approach, and a structure through which experiments can be done in multiple places and over a longer period of time” is important to achieve transitions for societal issues (Maas, Broek, & Deuten, 2017). Here, then, lies an urgent task for our society to learn to be able to tackle untameable societal issues. In particular, Living Labs are called promising as a transition tool. Thereby, it is endorsed that Living Labs fulfil a training function for all participants. Facilitating and expanding the number of Living Labs via the transition arenas, giving space to their diversity; using their outcomes and impact to make strategic choices in the political arenas can give substance to the paradoxes stated earlier.
Connecting these learning environments into an actively connected network can enhance the innovation power of the Netherlands. A particularly important task is to facilitate the learning eco-systems, which lies in the political-administrative arena. It needs to be empowered to organise multi-faceted in co-creation with all other actors in the societal playing field. It is important that government organisations organise accountability, legitimised considerations, ordered choices, transparency, effectiveness, professionalism and connection to the societal context (Steen, Scherpenisse, & Twist, 2015).
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The assessment of returns during co-creative processes in learning ecosystems usually takes place at two levels: the product of the collaboration (the rational goals), as well as the process of the collaboration (the social aspect of the co-creation). This still says nothing about the change realised in terms of the issue. A nuanced view of working in public-private partnerships shows that the success of co-creative processes lies within the profit of the cooperation process itself, more so than the actual results achieved(Voorberg, Bekkers, & Tummers, Apr 9, 2014). This insight is relevant for managing expectations and endorses the importance that co-creative processes do not only realise added value in terms of desired outcomes and impact, but that the success of the co-creative process lies mainly in the collaborative process.
From a sociotechnological perspective, participation of actors in networks has a double and especially more sustainable benefit, namely countering further fragmentation and segmentation of sectors, as well as gaining access to continuous innovation within a constantly changing playing field. A learning culture within ecosystems is thereby fostered. To enable better decision-making during transition processes, in addition to regular ex-post and ex-ante evaluations, understanding people’s personal experiences is important. Monitoring the transition process through ex-durant research methodologies for collecting data, both qualitative and quantitative, is essential. For example, through Participatory Narrative Inquiry (PNI), groups of people can participate in collecting and working with raw narratives of personal experiences to understand wicked problems. Capturing learning processes and actively sharing them transparently in the learning ecosystem increases insights into theoretical and practical knowledge, and insights into new learning strategies (Rotmans, 2006).
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The ‘healthy lubricant’ to enable the success of learning ecosystems lies in trust during trans-disciplinary collaboration. “Trust comes on foot and goes on horseback”; the different dependencies, interests and perceptions of actors involved mean that the game in transition arenas is not always about addressing the societal issue. Steering policy is insufficient in this from the perspective of policy alienation (L. Tummers, 2014; L. G. Tummers, Bekkers, V. J. J. M., & Steijn, 2009; Lars Tummers, 2011). An independent mediator who serves to lead the partnership within a learning environment or network of learning environments and manages the collaboration, sees through strategies and lets parties work in co-creation so that a pattern of action emerges in the process is crucial (Groeneveld & Van de Walle, 2011). Organisation of traditional relationships between vocational education and the labour market, for instance, do not sufficiently meet this requirement. Research on the functioning of cooperation in networks shows that independence from the actors involved is an important success factor for steering, which does not mean impartiality with regard to the outcome of cooperation (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004) in learning environments.
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The adaptive capability of involved actors in learning ecosystems and thus the enhancement of innovation power becomes partly possible when attention is paid to the dual loyalties facing participants in the cooperation network. As boundary spanners, they need to obtain sufficient legitimacy from their own supporters to be able to act, learn and develop within the experiments (Wenger, 1998; Wenger, 2000; Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002). In doing so, it is important for their constituencies that what is learned is also available to their own organisation in a targeted way, so that there can be the full spectrum from individual learning to institutional and (supra-)sectoral innovation. This is not just about the availability of theoretical knowledge, but mainly about the possibility of active participation in learning environments, so that hands-on new applicable knowledge and skills can be acquired. In this way, it becomes possible to learn by doing from the head, heart and hands and make a fundamental contribution to the transition issue at hand. Participation in the learning ecosystems should be actively stimulated by deploying active recruitment strategies and rewarding through legitimisation and recognition of newly acquired competences. Here, a system of endorsement through certification, open badges and blockchain technology is a strong addition to regular frameworks of qualification (EQF and NLQF). Participation should have an open character, allowing for a broad spectrum of participants. From learning and development within the sector and cross-sectorally, from full qualifications to in-service training, from broadening to deepening the T-shaped and M-shaped professionals, et cetera. It all hinges on providing learning environments where the transition can take practical shape. At its core, every transition issue is about learning new behaviour, knowledge and skills, realising an impact through a culture change that can bring about a shift from the world of the systems to the world of the living. The framework of learning ecosystems is therefore not a system, but a powerful movement that enables continuous innovation and needs constant adjustment.
As a contemporary example, the energy transition is a wicked problem, making it a transitional issue. From a sociotechnological perspective, it has a major impact on society. The responsibility for actors involved is high and so is the risk of not participating. Ambitions are high and the time available is limited, bringing with it great responsibility and sense of urgency. The currently established sector tables Electricity, Built Environment, Industry, Agriculture and Land Use and Mobility all have the issue of Education-Labour Market and Finance. A learning ecosystem approach is necessary to achieve targeted transition paths and programme lines at each aggregation level. It is important to make use of existing ecosystems in a smart, sustainable and inclusive way, but may not yet be able to grasp the issue of energy transition as a wicked problem. It is advisable to conduct targeted research on coverage of existing ecosystems and their degree of connection to the required transition paths of the energy transition.Beware of approaching the energy transition from a singular perspective of transformation and improvement processes, this issue is more than too complex for that.
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